The Laurentian Great Lakes, located in North America, offer incredible insight into the use of acoustic telemetry to track the movements of fishes. Acoustic telemetry research in the Great Lakes began in 1974 with one of the few studies tracking impacts of water quality on fish space use (Kelso 1974). Since then, there have been over 100 articles published in the primary literature, most of which have been completed in collaboration with the Great Lakes Acoustic Telemetry Observation System (GLATOS; https://glatos.glos.us/). These numbers do not include government reports or other forms of gray literature — a future goal for TrackdAT to incorporate. This diversity of research across the five lakes (and their basins) has led to exciting findings on at least 34 different species, many of which possess commercial value, but also cultural, social, and environmental worth. Findings from these studies have been (and continue to be) particularly useful at providing ecological knowledge to inform management decisions and activities.

Management of the Great Lakes, overseen by regional, lake-specific, provincial (Canada), state (USA), and federal organizations, is one of the most dynamic in the world, which is needed given the high degree of development and urbanization resulting in highly disturbed ecosystems throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Acoustic telemetry has been used to study many of the most pressing fish management themes within the Great Lakes such as invasive species, migration pathways, barriers to movement, spawning activity, stocking, habitat restoration, climate change, and fishery interactions, among others.

Below is a synopsis of some of the acoustic telemetry research that has been conducted in each lake. The purpose of this section is to briefly highlight interesting and effective work that has been done in each of the Laurentian Great Lakes and to provide insight on how research can be applied elsewhere with collaborative considerations in mind, especially with management authorities. We encourage users to conduct more comprehensive explorations of Great Lakes research, easily completed using the Export tab (and relevant filters).

Lake Erie, the shallowest of the Great Lakes, has diverse habitats primarily influenced by distinct bathymetry and productivity along an East to West gradient. For example, the western basin rarely reaches 15m depth and undergoes extensive summer warming and increasingly prevalent harmful algal blooms, while the deeper eastern basin is well-mixed with relatively low productivity.

Lake Erie hosts one of the largest fisheries in North America with walleye (Sander vitreus) being targeted for both recreational (USA) and commercial (Canada) sectors. Not surprisingly, acoustic telemetry research has focused on walleye in Lake Erie in relation to interactions between the fishing industry and the movements or presence of tagged populations. For example, the potential exposure of walleye to captures, in terms of age, sex, season, and stock, have been investigated using one of the world’s most comprehensive receiver arrays paired with some of the largest sample sizes of tagged individuals (Bade et al. 2019; Matley et al. 2020).

The strengths of using acoustic telemetry to specifically inform fishery harvest metrics (e.g., recapture and mortality rates) have also been demonstrated by scientists with years of experience working directly with management bodies (Faust et al. 2019). Apart from walleye, lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) have been studied the most in Lake Erie using acoustic telemetry, likely due to their iconic presence in the lake, in addition to their endangered conservation status. Understanding lake sturgeon navigation, distribution, and migration patterns have been the overarching goals of most acoustic telemetry research (Hondorp et al. 2017; Kessel et al. 2018; Withers et al. 2021) due to their vulnerability to human activities such as boating/shipping and river alterations (e.g., damming, channelization).

As with the other Great Lakes, waters are shared between provinces/states or countries (i.e., Canada and USA), raising potential concerns of conflicting management efforts. These have been main considerations in Lake Erie using acoustic telemetry to identify general space use patterns of fishes such as walleye (Matley et al. 2020) and muskellunge (Esox masquinongy, Hessenauer et al. 2021), and are increasingly important avenues for future socio-ecological research in Lake Erie.

The shores of Lake Ontario have long been home to major urban and industrial areas that released decades of pollution into the lake in the mid 1900s. Negative impacts of continued industrial and agricultural waste prompted recovery efforts aimed at restoring habitats and species within the lake and understanding how changes have altered the structure and functioning of the lake ecosystem. In the half century since acoustic telemetry began in Lake Ontario, it has grown to encompass themes that center around evaluating restoration efforts and understanding interactions between the multiple species that comprise the present-day fish community. In some of the most polluted areas of the Great Lakes designated as Areas of Concern, acoustic telemetry has been used to determine how various fish species differentially utilize these highly degraded regions of Lake Ontario to inform multispecies management and habitat restoration (Rous et al. 2017a; Veilleux et al. 2018).

A long history of species introductions and extirpations in Lake Ontario has created a diverse and dynamic community of native and introduced species within the lake. Stocking of salmonids in particular for restoration and fishing purposes has restructured the food web and changed how native and introduced salmonids use available food and habitat resources within the lake. Ongoing stocking efforts have been investigated with acoustic telemetry to assess the efficacy of species restoration and identify previously unknown interactions between stocked and established individuals in the lake (Ivanova et al. 2021; Klinard et al. 2021; Gatch et al. 2022).

Acoustic telemetry research within Lake Ontario continues to highlight salmonids that dominate the offshore fish community and are sought after in recreational and commercial fisheries to support management of ecologically and economically important species (Ivanova et al. 2021; Larocque et al. 2022).

Lake Huron, consisting of the longest shoreline of all the Great Lakes, supports the livelihoods of over 3 million people through access to recreational activities, drinking water, and food, among others. It is a well-studied lake compared to the other Great Lakes with over 25 acoustic telemetry studies published in peer-reviewed literature. Almost all acoustic telemetry research has been conducted in the last decade with notable emphasis on lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), and walleye.

Lake trout, a historically abundant top predator within Lake Huron, has faced tumultuous times due to a combination of factors such as overfishing and presence of invasive species. As a result, acoustic telemetry research has focussed on understanding general space use patterns of lake trout (Binder et al. 2017), in addition to spawning activities and restoration of important habitat (Marsden et al. 2016; Farha et al. 2020). One of the invasive species wreaking havoc on native fish populations in Lake Huron is the parasitic sea lamprey. Again, acoustic telemetry has been used to hone in on aspects of sea lamprey behaviour and capture efficacy due to the needs to keep populations under control. For example, the capacity for sea lamprey to navigate streams using olfactory cues has increased knowledge of how best to target them for removal programs (Vrieze et al. 2011). Similarly, the performance of sea lamprey traps have been evaluated with acoustic telemetry, showing that considerable modifications in current trap design and deployment would be needed for effective control (Holbrook et al. 2016).

Work in Lake Huron has also included an important gateway between it and Lake Erie — the Huron-Erie Corridor. Walleye are a popular and abundant fishery species in both lakes; thus, understanding whether migrations between lakes support these high numbers is valuable. Investigation into movements between lakes; however, showed that limited exchange actually occurs (Hayden et al. 2019) and both populations are independently profiting from beneficial environmental conditions and resource availability.

Lake Michigan is the only Great Lake located entirely within the United States and is the second largest of the Great Lakes. Throughout the 1800s and 1900s, Lake Michigan witnessed the rise and fall of commercial fisheries caused by overfishing and industrial pollution that contaminated the lake and the many rivers that feed into it. In the twentieth century, invasions of non-native species such as sea lamprey and alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) further impacted the fishing industries and resulted in the stocking of salmonids to combat changes to the native fish community.

Lake sturgeon were one of the iconic native species that faced dramatic population declines in this area and have been the primary focus of acoustic telemetry research in Lake Michigan. Many Lake Michigan tributaries are part of state-led rehabilitation programs that in recent decades aimed to increase populations through stocking programs, identify important habitats for juveniles, and protect and restore spawning grounds. Acoustic telemetry research has supported such initiatives by evaluating the occurrence of adult lake sturgeon in Lake Michigan river systems (Harris et al. 2020) and identifying spawning site fidelity of adults in the population (Donofrio et al. 2018). To determine the success of rehabilitation, acoustic telemetry has been used to track the movements of age-0 lake sturgeon stocked into rivers (Tucker et al. 2022), although stocking efforts are often hindered by the presence of dams. Trap and transfer programs are used to move lake sturgeon through sections of rivers that are blocked by dams and acoustic telemetry has proven useful in assessing how such programs can contribute to re-establishing naturally producing populations (Koenigs et al. 2019; Isermann et al. 2022).

Lake Superior, the largest lake in the world (by surface area), is the most remote and untouched by humans of all the Great Lakes. The relatively limited agriculture and development within its watershed contributes to it also being the least productive of the lakes. Additionally, it is the least researched lake in terms of acoustic telemetry studies with only five articles published (up until 2022), focusing on sea lamprey, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), walleye, and muskellunge. The general spatial ecology of these species has been the main objective of research in Lake Superior with emphasis on diel and seasonal movements (Kelso and Kwain 1984; Schaeffer et al. 2020). As an invasive species, lamprey have garnered significant concern in Lake Superior. For example, research has centered around the effectiveness of trapping measures to control lamprey populations using acoustic telemetry (Rous et al. 2017b).

Bade, A.P., Binder, T.R., Faust, M.D., Vandergoot, C.S., Hartman, T.J., Kraus, R.T., Krueger, C.C., and Ludsin, S.A. 2019. Sex-based differences in spawning behavior account for male-bised harvest in Lake Erie walleye (Sander vitreus). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 76(11): 2003-2012.

Binder, T.R., Marsden, J.E., Riley, S.C., Johnson, J.E., Johnson, N.S., He, J., Ebener, M., Holbrook, C.M., Bergstedt, R.a., Bronte, C.R., Hayden, T.A., and Krueger, C.C. 2017. Movement patterns and spatial segregation of two populations of lake trout Salvelinus namaycush in Lake Huron. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 43(3): 108-118.

Donofrio, M.C., Scribner, K.T., Baker, E.A., Kanefsky, J., Tsehaye, I., and Elliott, R.F. 2018. Telemetry and genetic data characterize lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens Rafinesque, 1817) breeding ecology and spawning site fidelity in Green Bay Rivers of Lake Michigan. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 34(2): 302-313.

Farha, S.A., Binder, T.B., Bronte, C.R., Hayes, D.B., Janssen, J., Marsen, J.E., Riley, S.C., and Krueger, C.C. 2020. Evidence of spawning by lake trout Salvelinus namaycush on substrates at the base of large boulders in northern Lake Huron. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 46(6): 1674-1688.

Faust, M.D., Vandergoot, C.S., Brenden, T.O., Kraus, R.T., Harman, T., and Krueger, C.C. 2019. Acoustic telemetry as a potential tool for mixed-stock analysis of fishery harvest: a feasibility study using Lake Erie walleye. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 76(6): 1019-1030.

Gatch, A.J., Frugal, S.L., Gorsky, D., Marsden, J.E., Biesinger, Z.F., and Lantry, B.F. 2022. Evaluation of post-stocking dispersal and mortality of juvenile lake trout Salvelinus namaycush in Lake Ontario using acoustic telemetry. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 48(2): 572-580.

Harris, B.S., Ruetz III, C.R., Travis, J., Weinke, A.D., and Biddanda, B.A. 2020. Adult lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens Rafinesque, 1817) occurrence in the Muskegon River system, a Lake Michigan downed river mouth, USA. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 36(5): 547-558.

Hayden, T.A., Vandergoot, C.S., Fielder, D.G., Cooke, S.J., Dettmers, J.M., and Krueger, C.C. 2019. Telemetry reveals limited exchange of walleye between Lake Erie and Lake Huron: movement of two populations through the Huron-Erie corridor. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 45(6): 1241-1250.Hessenauer, J-M., Harris, C., Marklevitz, S., Faust, M.D., Thorn, M.W., Utrup, B., and Hondorp, D. 2021. Seasonal movements of muskellunge in the St. Clair-Detroit River System: implications for multi-jurisdictional fisheries management. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 47(2): 475-485.

Holbrook, C.M., Bergstedt, R.A., Barber, J., Bravener, G.A., Jones, M.L., and Krueger, C.C. 2016. Evaluating harvest-based control of invasive fish with telemetry: performance of sea lamprey traps in the Great Lakes. Ecological Applications, 26(6): 1595-1609. Hondorp, D.W., Bennion, D.H., Roseman, E.F., Holbrook, C.M., Boase, J.C., Chiotti, J.A., Thomas, M.V., Wills, T.C., Drouin, R.G., Kessel, S.T., and Krueger, C.C. 2017. Use of navigation channels by lake sturgeon: does channelization increase vulnerability of fish to ship strikes? PLoS ONE, 12(7): e0179791.

Isermann, D.A., Raabe, J.K., Easterly, E.G., Schulze, J.C., Porter, N.J., Dembkowski, D.J., Donofrio, M.C., Kramer, D.R., and Elliott, R.F. 2022. Lake sturgeon movement after tap and transfer around two damns on the Menominee River, Wisconsin-Michigan. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 151(5): 611-629.

Ivanova, S.V., Larocque, S.M., Fisk, A.T., and Johnson, T.B. 2021. Spatiotemporal interactions of native and introduced salmon top predators in a large lake: implications for species restoration. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 78(8): 1158-1167.

Kelso, J.R.M., and Kwain, W.H. 1984. The post-spawning movement and diel activity of rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, as determined by ultrasonic tracking in Batchwana Bay, Lake Superior, Ontario. The Canadian Field Naturalist, 98: 320-330.

Kelso, J.R.M. 1974. Influence of a thermal effluent on movement of brown bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus) as determined by ultrasonic tracking. Journal of the Fisheries Board of Canada, 31(9): 1507-1513.

Kessel, S.T., Hondorp, D.W., Holbrook, C.M., Boase, J.C., Chiotti, J.A., Thomas, M.V., Wills, T.C., Roseman, E.F., Drouin, R., and Krueger, C.C. 2018. Divergent migration within lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) populations: multiple distinct patterns exist across an unrestricted migration corridor. Journal of Animal Ecology, 87(1): 259-273.

Klinard, N.V., Matley, J.K., Ivanova, S.V., Larocque, S.M., Fisk, A.T., and Johnson, T.B. 2021. Application of machine learning to identify predators of stocked fish in Lake OntarioL using acoustic telemetry predation tags to inform management. Journal of Fish Biology, 98(1): 237-250.

Koenigs, R.P., Bruch, R.M., Reiter, D., and Pyatskowit, J. 2019. Restoration of naturally reproducing and resident riverine lake sturgeon populations through capture and transfer. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 35(1): 160-168.

Larocque, S.M., Lake, C., Johnson, T.B., and Fisk, A.T. 2022. Patterns in space use of land-locked Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in a large lake. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 48(2): 381-391.

Marsden, J.E., Binder, T.R., Johnson, J., He, J., Dingledine, N., Adams, J., Johnson, N.S., Buchinger, T.J., and Krueger, C.C. 2016. Five-year evaluation of habitat remediation in Thunder Bay, Lake Huron: comparison of constructed reef characteristics that attract spawning lake trout. Fisheries Research, 183: 275-286.

Matley, J.K., Faust, M.D., Raby, G.D., Zhao, Y., Robinson, J., MacDougall, T., Hayden, T.A., Fisk, A.T., Vandergoot, C.S., and Krueger, C.C. 2020. Seasonal habitat-use differences among Lake Erie’s walleye stocks. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 46(3): 609-621.

Rous, A.M., Midwood, J.D., Gutwosky, L.F.G., Lapointe, N.W.R., Portiss, R., Sciscione, T., Wells, M.G., Doka, S.E., and Cooke, S.J. 2017a. Telemetry-determined habitat use uniforms multi-species management in an urban river. Environmental Management, 59: 118-128.

Rous, A.M., McLean, A.R., Barber, J., Bravener, G., Casto-Santos, T., Holbrook, C.M., Imre, I., Pratt, T.C., and McLaughlin, R.L. 2017b. Spatial mismatch between sea lamprey behaviour and trap location explains low success at trapping for control. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 74(12): 2085-2097.

Schaeffer, E.M., Pinkerton, J.J., Venturelli, P.A., and Miller, L.M. 2020. Muskellunge spatial ecology in the St. Louis River estuary and southwestern Lake Superior. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 149(6): 651-663.

Tucker, S., Houghton, C.J., Harris, B., Elliott, R., Donofrio, M., and Forsythe, P.S. 2022. Identification of high-occupancy areas and movement dynamics of age-0 lake sturgeon in the Lower Fox River, Wisconsin. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 151(6): 682-694.

Veilleux, M.A.N., Midwood, J.D., Lapointe, N.W.R., Portiss, R., Wells, M., Doka, S.E., and Cooke, S.J. 2018. Assessing occupancy of freshwater fishes in urban boat slips of Toronto Harbour. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 21(3): 331-341.

Vrieze, L.A., Bergstedt, R.A., and Sorensen, P.W. 2011. Olfactory-mediated stream-finding behavior of migratory adult sea lamprey (Pretromyzon marinus). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 68(3): 523-533.

Withers, J.L., Takade-Heumacher, H., Davis, L., Neuenhoff, R., Albeke, S.E., and Sweka, J.A. 2021. Large- and small-scale movement and distribution of acoustically tagged lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) in eastern Lake Erie. Animal Biotelemetry, 9: 40.